Disease-A-Month
Volume 54, Issue 9 , Pages 615-626 , September 2008

Pathophysiology of Noncardiac Chest Pain: Not Only Acid

References 

  1. Ghillebert G, Anssens J, Vantrappen G, et al. Ambulatory 24-hour intraoesophageal pH and pressure recordings v provocation tests in the diagnosis of chest pain of oesophageal origin. Gut. 1990;31:738–744
  2. Castell DO, Levine SM. Lower esophageal sphincter response to gastric alkalinization (A new mechanism for treatment of heartburn with antacids). Ann Intern Med. 1971;74:223–227
  3. Smith JL, Opekun AR, Larkai E, et al. Sensitivity of the esophageal mucosa to pH in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 1989;96:683–689
  4. Hewson EG, Sinclair JW, Dalton CB, et al. Twenty-four-hour esophageal pH monitoring: the most useful test for evaluating noncardiac chest pain. Am J Med. 1991;90:576–583
  5. Carlsson R, Dent J, Bolling-Sternevald E, et al. The usefulness of a structured questionnaire in the assessment of symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1998;33:1023–1029
  6. Bredenoord AJ, Weusten BL, Curvers WL, et al. Determinants of perception of heartburn and regurgitation. Gut. 2006;55:313–318
  7. Holzer P. Taste receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. V. Acid sensing in the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;292:G699–705.22
  8. Caterina MJ, Schumacher MA, Tominaga M, et al. The capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway. Nature. 1997;389:816–824
  9. Hwang SW, Cho H, Kwak J, et al. Direct activation of capsaicin receptors by products of lipoxygenases: endogenous capsaicin-like substances. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000;97:6155–6160
  10. Zygmunt PM, Petersson J, Andersson DA, et al. Vanilloid receptors on sensory nerves mediate the vasodilator action of anandamide. Nature. 1999;400:452–457
  11. Trevisani M, Smart D, Gunthorpe MJ, et al. Ethanol elicits and potentiates nociceptor responses via the vanilloid receptor-1. Nat Neurosci. 2002;5:546–551
  12. Waldmann R, Champigny G, Lingueglia E, et al. H(+)-gated cation channels. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999;868:67–76
  13. Matthews PJ, Aziz Q, Facer P, et al. Increased capsaicin receptor TRPV1 nerve fibres in the inflamed human oesophagus. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004;16:897–902
  14. Bhat YM, Bielefeldt K. Capsaicin receptor (TRPV1) and non-erosive reflux disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;18:263–270
  15. Banerjee B, Medda BK, Lazarova Z, et al. Effect of reflux-induced inflammation on transient receptor potential vanilloid one (TRPV1) expression in primary sensory neurons innervating the oesophagus of rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2007;19:681–691
  16. Szallasi A, Blumberg PM. Vanilloid (capsaicin) receptors and mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev. 1999;51:159–211
  17. Kindt S, Vos R, Sifrim D, et al. Influence of intra-esophageal capsaicin on heartburn induction and desensitisation in man. Gastroenterology. 2006;130(suppl 2):A392;(Abstract)
  18. Akiba Y, Ghayouri S, Takeuchi T, et al. Carbonic anhydrases and mucosal vanilloid receptors help mediate the hyperemic response to luminal CO2 in rat duodenum. Gastroenterology. 2006;131:142–152
  19. Tobey NA, Hosseini SS, Caymaz-Bor C, et al. The role of pepsin in acid injury to esophageal epithelium. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:3062–3070
  20. Hopwood D, Milne G, Logan KR. Electron microscopic changes in human oesophageal epithelium in oesophagitis. J Pathol. 1979;129:161–167
  21. Tobey NA, Carson JL, Alkiek RA, et al. Dilated intercellular spaces: a morphological feature of acid reflux—damaged human esophageal epithelium. Gastroenterology. 1996;111:1200–1205
  22. Villanacci V, Grigolato PG, Cestari R, et al. Dilated intercellular spaces as markers of reflux disease: histology, semiquantitative score and morphometry upon light microscopy. Digestion. 2001;64:1–8
  23. Tobey NA, Hosseini SS, Argote CM, et al. Dilated intercellular spaces and shunt permeability in nonerosive acid-damaged esophageal epithelium. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99:13–22
  24. Koek GH, Tack J, Sifrim D, et al. The role of acid and duodenal gastroesophageal reflux in symptomatic GERD. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:2033–2040
  25. Martinez SD, Malagon IB, Garewal HS, et al. Non-erosive reflux disease (NERD)—acid reflux and symptom patterns. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:537–545
  26. Zerbib F, Duriez A, Roman S, et al. Determinants of gastro-oesophageal reflux perception in patients with persistent symptoms despite proton pump inhibitors. Gut. 2007;[Epub ahead of print]
  27. De Hertogh G, Ectors N, Van Eyken P, et al. Review article: the nature of oesophageal injury in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24(suppl 2):17–26
  28. Siddiqui A, Rodriguez-Stanley S, Zubaidi S, et al. Esophageal visceral sensitivity to bile salts in patients with functional heartburn and in healthy control subjects. Dig Dis Sci. 2005;50:81–85
  29. Zhang F, Altorki NK, Wu YC, et al. Duodenal reflux induces cyclooxygenase-2 in the esophageal mucosa of rats: evidence for involvement of bile acids. Gastroenterology. 2001;121:1391–1399
  30. Kawabe A, Shimada Y, Soma T, et al. Production of prostaglandinE2 via bile acid is enhanced by trypsin and acid in normal human esophageal epithelial cells. Life Sci. 2004;75:21–34
  31. Nagahara A, Miwa H, Minoo T, et al. Increased esophageal sensitivity to acid and saline in patients with nonerosive gastro-esophageal reflux disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;40:891–895
  32. Sarkar S, Aziz Q, Woolf CJ, et al. Contribution of central sensitisation to the development of non-cardiac chest pain. Lancet. 2000;356:1154–1159
  33. Sarkar S, Woolf CJ, Hobson AR, et al. Perceptual wind-up in the human oesophagus is enhanced by central sensitisation. Gut. 2006;55:920–925
  34. Hobson AR, Furlong PL, Sarkar S, et al. Neurophysiologic assessment of esophageal sensory processing in noncardiac chest pain. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:80–88
  35. Paterson WG, Wang H, Vanner SJ. Increasing pain sensation to repeated esophageal balloon distension in patients with chest pain of undetermined etiology. Dig Dis Sci. 1995;40:1325–1331
  36. Smout AJ, DeVore MS, Dalton CB, et al. Cerebral potentials evoked by oesophageal distension in patients with non-cardiac chest pain. Gut. 1992;33:298–302
  37. Trimble KC, Pryde A, Heading RC. Lowered oesophageal sensory thresholds in patients with symptomatic but not excess gastro-oesophageal reflux: evidence for a spectrum of visceral sensitivity in GORD. Gut. 1995;37:7–12
  38. Hu WH, Martin CJ, Talley NJ. Intraesophageal acid perfusion sensitizes the esophagus to mechanical distension: a Barostat study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:2189–2194
  39. Peghini PL, Johnston BT, Leite LP, et al. Mucosal acid exposure sensitizes a subset of normal subjects to intra-oesophageal balloon distension. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1996;8:979–983
  40. DeVault KR. Acid infusion does not affect intraesophageal balloon distention-induced sensory and pain thresholds. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997;92:947–949
  41. Sarkar S, Hobson AR, Hughes A, et al. The prostaglandin E2 receptor-1 (EP-1) mediates acid-induced visceral pain hypersensitivity in humans. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:18–25
  42. Willert RP, Delaney C, Hobson AR, et al. Constitutive cyclo-oxygenase-2 does not contribute to the development of human visceral pain hypersensitivity. Eur J Pain. 2006;10:487–494
  43. Willert RP, Woolf CJ, Hobson AR, et al. The development and maintenance of human visceral pain hypersensitivity is dependent on the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. Gastroenterology. 2004;126:683–692
  44. Aziz Q, Andersson JL, Valind S, et al. Identification of human brain loci processing esophageal sensation using positron emission tomography. Gastroenterology. 1997;113:50–59
  45. Paterson WG, Selucky M, Hynna-Liepert TT. Effect of intraesophageal location and muscarinic blockade on balloon distension-induced chest pain. Dig Dis Sci. 1991;36:282–288
  46. Patel RS, Rao SS. Biomechanical and sensory parameters of the human esophagus at four levels. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:G187–G191
  47. Takeda T, Nabae T, Kassab G, et al. Oesophageal wall stretch: the stimulus for distension induced oesophageal sensation. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2004;16:721–728
  48. Frøkjaer JB, Andersen SD, Lundbye-Christensen S, et al. Sensation and distribution of stress and deformation in the human oesophagus. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2006;18:104–114
  49. Weusten BL, Akkermans LM, VanBerge-Henegouwen GP, et al. Symptom perception in gastroesophageal reflux disease is dependent on spatiotemporal reflux characteristics. Gastroenterology. 1995;108:1739–1744
  50. Cicala M, Emerenziani S, Caviglia R, et al. Intra-oesophageal distribution and perception of acid reflux in patients with non-erosive gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;18:605–613
  51. Yamamoto Y, Liu J, Smith TK, et al. Distension-related responses in circular and longitudinal muscle of the human esophagus: an ultrasonographic study. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:G805–G811
  52. Balaban DH, Yamamoto Y, Liu J, et al. Sustained esophageal contraction: a marker of esophageal chest pain identified by intraluminal ultrasonography. Gastroenterology. 1999;116:29–37
  53. Pehlivanov N, Liu J, Mittal RK. Sustained esophageal contraction: a motor correlate of heartburn symptom. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2001;281:G743–G751
  54. de Caestecker JS, Pryde A, Heading RC. Site and mechanism of pain perception with oesophageal balloon distension and intravenous edrophonium in patients with oesophageal chest pain. Gut. 1992;33:580–586
  55. Paterson WG, Miller DV, Dilworth N, et al. Intraluminal acid induces oesophageal shortening via capsaicin-sensitive neurokinin neurons. Gut. 2007;56:1347–1352
  56. Alexander PJ, Prabhu SG, Krishnamoorthy ES, et al. Mental disorders in patients with noncardiac chest pain. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1994;89:291–293
  57. Husser D, Bollmann A, Kühne C, et al. Evaluation of noncardiac chest pain: diagnostic approach, coping strategies and quality of life. Eur J Pain. 2006;10:51–55
  58. Naliboff BD, Mayer M, Fass R, et al. The effect of life stress on symptoms of heartburn. Psychosom Med. 2004;66:426–434
  59. Cheng C, Wong WM, Lai KC, et al. Psychosocial factors in patients with noncardiac chest pain. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:443–449
  60. Farré R, De Vos R, Geboes K, et al. Critical role of stress in increased oesophageal mucosa permeability and dilated intercellular spaces. Gut. 2007;56:1191–1197
  61. Esler JL, Bock BC. Psychological treatments for noncardiac chest pain: recommendations for a new approach. J Psychosom Res. 2004;56:263–269

PII: S0011-5029(08)00077-1

doi: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2008.06.006

Disease-A-Month
Volume 54, Issue 9 , Pages 615-626 , September 2008

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution