Disease-A-Month
Volume 56, Issue 2 , Pages 40-71 , February 2010

Update of Cerebral Vascular Disease: Issues for the Primary Care Physician

References 

  1. Strong K, Mathers C, Bonita R. Preventing stroke: saving lives around the world. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:182–187
  2. Johnston SC, Mendis S, Mathers CD. Global variation in stroke burden and mortality: estimates from monitoring, surveillance, and modeling. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8:345–354
  3. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2009 update. Circulation. 2009;119:e21–e181
  4. Gorelick PB. Stroke prevention: an opportunity for efficient use of health care resources in the coming decade. Stroke. 1994;25:220–224
  5. Gorelick PB. Stroke prevention. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:347–355
  6. Gorelick PB. Stroke prevention: windows of opportunity and failed expectations? (A discussion of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors and a prevention proposal). Neuroepidemiology. 1997;16:163–173
  7. Gorelick PB, Sacco RL, Smith DB, et al. Prevention of a first stroke (A review of guidelines and a multidisciplinary consensus statement from the National Stroke Association). JAMA. 1999;281:1112–1120
  8. Gorelick PB. Prevention and screening programs. In:  Norris JW,  Hachinski V editor. Stroke Prevention. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001;p. 117–136
  9. Gorelick PB. Stroke prevention therapy beyond antithrombotics: unifying mechanisms in ischemic stroke pathogenesis and implications for therapy: an invited review. Stroke. 2002;33:862–875
  10. In:  Gorelick PB editors. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology (Stroke prevention). Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, American Academy of Neurology; 2005;
  11. Gorelick PB. Primary prevention of stroke (Impact of healthy lifestyle). Circulation. 2008;118:904–906
  12. Gorelick PB. Challenges of designing trials for the primary prevention of stroke. Stroke. 2009;40(suppl 3):S82–S84
  13. Gorelick PB. Burden of stroke risk factors. In:  Bornstein NM editors. Stroke. Basel: Karger; 2009;p. 9–23
  14. Gorelick PB. The future of stroke prevention by risk factor modification. In:  Fisher M editors. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. vol. 94:New York: Elsevier; 2009;p. 1261–1276(3rd series): Stroke, Part III
  15. Hankey GJ. Potential new risk factors for ischemic stroke (What is their potential?). Stroke. 2006;37:2181–2188
  16. Ruland SD, Gorelick PB. Stroke. Neurol Clin. 2008;26:871–1207
  17. Fabbri LM, Rabe KF. From COPD to chronic systemic inflammatory syndrome?. Lancet. 2007;370:797–799
  18. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937–952
  19. Chiuve SE, Rexrode KM, Spiegelman D, et al. Primary prevention of stroke by healthy lifestyle. Circulation. 2008;118:947–954
  20. Goldstein LB, Adams R, Alberts MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633
  21. Gorelick PB. Cerebrovascular disease in African Americans. Stroke. 1998;29:2656–2664
  22. Trimble B, Morgenstern LB. Stroke in minorities. Neurol Clin. 2008;26:1177–1190
  23. Gorelick PB. New horizons for stroke prevention: PROGRESS and HOPE. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1:149–156
  24. Aiyagari V, Gorelick PB. Management of blood pressure for acute and recurrent stroke. Stroke. 2009;40:2251–2256
  25. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–333
  26. The Women's Health Initiative Steering Committee. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy (The Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial). JAMA. 2004;291:1701–1712
  27. NAMS Advisory Panel statement (Estrogen and progestogen use in postmenopausal women: July 2008 position statement of The North American Menopause Society). Menopause. 2008;15:584–603
  28. Gorelick PB. Carotid endarterectomy: where do we draw the line?. Stroke. 1999;30:1745–1750
  29. Boden-Albala B, Sacco RL, Lee H-S, et al. Metabolic syndrome and ischemic stroke risk (Northern Manhattan study). Stroke. 2008;39:30–35
  30. Gorelick PB. The status of alcohol as a risk factor for stroke. Stroke. 1989;20:1607–1610
  31. Bakris G, Bohm M, Dagenais G, et al. Cardiovascular protection for all individuals at high risk: evidence-based best practice. Clin Res Cardiol. 2008;392:1–14
  32. Executive Committee and Writing Committee of the European Stroke Organization. Guidelines for management of ischemic stroke 2008. http://www.eso-stroke.orgAccessed May 20, 2008
  33. Beckett NS, Peters R, Fletcher AE, et al. Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1887–1898
  34. The ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipirl, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1547–1559
  35. Jamerson K, Weber MA, Bakris GL, et al. Benazepril plus amlodipine or hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2417–2428
  36. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195–2207
  37. Ogawa H, Nakayama M, Morimoto T, et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of atherosclerotic events in patients with type-2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;300:2134–2141
  38. Belch J, MacCuish A, Campbell I, et al. The prevention of progression of arterial disease and diabetes (POPADAD) trial: factorial randomized placebo controlled trial of aspirin and antioxidants in patients with diabetes and asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease. BMJ. 2008;337:a1840
  39. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomized trials. Lancet. 2009;373:1849–1860
  40. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2545–2559
  41. The ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560–2572
  42. Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:129–139
  43. Ray KK, Seshasai SR, Wijesuriya S, et al. Effect of intensive control of glucose on cardiovascular outcomes and death in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of controlled trials. Lancet. 2009;373:1765–1772
  44. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men (The Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial). JAMA. 2008;300:2123–2133
  45. In:  Gorelick PB,  Weber MA editor. Handbook of Stroke Prevention and Treatment. London: Current Medical Group; 2007;p. 1–22
  46. Gorelick PB, Wong KS, Bae HJ, et al. Large artery intracranial occlusive disease: a large worldwide burden but a relatively neglected frontier. Stroke. 2008;39:2396–2399
  47. Hachinski VC. Transient cerebral ischemia: a historical sketch. In:  Rose FC,  Bynum WR editor. Historical Aspects of the Neurosciences. New York: Raven; 1982;p. 185–193
  48. Fisher M. Occlusion of the internal carotid artery. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1951;65:346–377
  49. Millikan CH, Siekert RG. Studies in cerebrovascular disease: part I (The syndrome of intermittent insufficiency of the basilar artery system). Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin. 1955;30:61–68
  50. Gorelick PB. Transient ischemic attack: new definition, importance of emergent diagnosis, and treatment guidelines. J Med. 2009;2:3–10
  51. Heyman A, Leviton A, Millikan CH, et al. Transient focal cerebral ischemia: epidemiological and clinical aspects. Stroke. 1974;5:277–287
  52. Albers GW, Caplan LR, Easton JD, et al. Transient ischemic attack—proposal for a new definition. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1713–1716
  53. Easton JD, Saver JL, Albers GW, et al. Definition and evaluation of transient ischemic attack. Stroke. 2009;40:2276–2293
  54. Rothwell PM. Does transient ischemic attack deserve emergency care?. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2006;2:174–175
  55. Giles MF, Rothwell PM. Risk of stroke early after transient ischemic attack: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:1063–1072
  56. Johnston SC, Gress DR, Browner WS, et al. Short-term prognosis after emergency department diagnosis of TIA. JAMA. 2000;284:2901–2906
  57. Rothwell PM, Giles MF, Flossmann E, et al. A simple score (ABCD) to identify individuals at high early risk of stroke after transient ischemic attack. Lancet. 2005;366:29–36
  58. Johnston SC, Rothwell PM, Nguyen-Huynh MN, et al. Validation and refinement of scores to predict very early stroke risk after transient ischemic attack. Lancet. 2007;369:283–292
  59. Rothwell PM, Giles MF, Chandratheva A, et al. Effect of urgent treatment of transient ischemic attack and minor stroke on early recurrent stroke (EXPRESS study): a prospective population-based sequential comparison. Lancet. 2007;370:1432–1442
  60. Lavallee P, Meseguer E, Abboud H, et al. A transient ischemic attack clinic with round-the-clock access (SOS-TIA): feasibility and effects. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:953–960
  61. Johnston SC, Ngueyen-Hyuynh MN, Schwarz ME, et al. National Stroke Association guidelines for the management of transient ischemic attack. Ann Neurol. 2006;60:301–313
  62. Gorelick PB. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and risk of stroke. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101(12A):34F–40F
  63. Davidson MH, Corson MA, Alberts MJ, et al. Consensus panel recommendations for incorporating lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 testing in to cardiovascular disease risk assessment guidelines. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101(12A):51F–57F
  64. Elkind MS, Tai W, Coates K, et al. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, lipoprotein-associated phopholipase A2, and outcome after ischemic stroke. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:2073–2080
  65. Furie KL, Parides MK, Greer DM, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 activity predicts early stroke recurrence [abstract]. Stroke. 2007;38:458
  66. Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617
  67. Adams RJ, Albers G, Alberts MJ, et al. Update to the AHA/ASA recommendations for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke and transient ischemic attack. Stroke. 2008;39:1647–1652
  68. Albers GW, Amarenco P, Easton JD, et al. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke. Chest. 2008;133:630S–669S
  69. Yusuf S, Diener HC, Sacco RL, et al. Telmisartan to prevent recurrent stroke and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1225–1237
  70. Sacco RL, Diener HC, Yusuf S, et al. Aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel for recurrent stroke. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1238–1251
  71. Mega JL, Close SL, Wiviott SD, et al. Cytochrome P-450 polymorphisms and response to clopidogrel. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:354–362
  72. Simon T, Verstuyft C, Mary-Krause M, et al. Genetic determinants of response to clopdiogrel and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:363–375
  73. Ho M, Maddox TM, Wang L, et al. Risk of adverse outcomes associated with concomitant use of clopidogrel and proton pump inhibitors following acute coronary syndrome. JAMA. 2009;301:937–944
  74. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidpogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2001–2015
  75. Yadav JS, Wholey MH, Kuntz RE, et al. Protected carotid-artery stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1493–1501
  76. Mas JL, Chatellier G, Beyssen B, et al. EVA-3S Investigators Endarterectomy versus stenting in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1660–1671
  77. The SPACE Collaborative Group. 30-day results from the SPACE trial of stent-protected angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients: a randomized, multicenter trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1239–1247
  78. Carotid Revascularization Endarterectomy Versus Stenting Trial. http://www.Strokecenter.orgAccessed on July 26, 2009
  79. ICSS. Carotid endarterectomy superior to stenting, at least in short term. News release from European Stroke Conference 2009. Large Clinical Trials Session Abstract Number 3. Presented in Stockholm, Sweden, May 28, 2009.
  80. Stenting and aggressive medical management for preventing recurrent stroke in intracranial stenosis. http://www.Strokecenter.orgAccessed July 26, 2009
  81. ACTIVE Writing Group of the ACTIVE Investigators. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versus oral anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation in the Atrial Fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbesartan for prevention of Vascular Events (ACTIVE W): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;367:1903–1912
  82. The ACTIVE Investigators. Effect of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:2066–2078
  83. Embolic protection in patients with atrial fibrillation (PROTECT-AF) trial. Available at: http://ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00129545.
  84. Maisel WH. Left atrial appendage occlusion—closure or just the beginning?. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:2601–2603
  85. Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:1139–1151
  86. Roberts CS, Gorelick PB, Xin Y, et al. Additional stroke-related and non-stroke-related cardiovascular costs and hospitalizations in managed-care patients after ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2009;40:1425–1432

PII: S0011-5029(09)00149-7

doi: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2009.12.001

Disease-A-Month
Volume 56, Issue 2 , Pages 40-71 , February 2010